Asian Art in London
29 October - 7 November 2009
Introduction
The Emperor as a scholar At the crux of each dynastic succession in China's long history, there stands the onein- a-million hoping to be invested with the Heaven's mandate to lead its people. Invariably he attains this position by formidable force and cunning; however, it is not by force and cunning alone that the new Son of Heaven can hope to remain in the position of power, for it is the authority over people's minds that will ultimately ensure a long and prosperous rule for the Emperor and his dynasty. The land can be conquered, the power of government can be usurped, sometimes even by alien forces; the Chinese mind, however, remains resilient and undiminished.
Through thinkers such as Zhou Hao (AD 1032-1085), Zhu Xi (AD 1130-1200), and Wang Shouren (AD1472-1539), the orthodox school of Confucian secular pragmatism gradually absorbed the metaphysical concepts present in Daoism and Buddhism. Whether it was through Zhu Xi's ‘supreme principle' or Wang Shouren's ‘innate knowing', the Neo-Confucian elevated the power of the mind above the state. The cultivation of the mind becomes central to the teaching of this groundbreaking new school of thought. This significant evolution of thinking ensured that the core of Chinese culture survived intact through all the turbulence: the Chinese mind might bow to authority in the mundane realm, but whoever becomes its ruler invariably is seduced, and eventually becomes conquered himself, by the ultimate authority of the Dao - the way, the heaven, the Great Ultimate (taiji). To be a true and legitimate ruler, he needs to become one with Dao.
The concept of Dao permeates all levels of the Chinese consciousness as well as the subconscious. At one level, popular religions, divination, myths and superstitions are some of the ways laymen relate to its mystery. But educated scholars through the generations, however, catch a glimpse of the sublime by way of literature, painting, music, poetry and calligraphy. Scholars might venerate those who abandon the worldly and live the life of ascetics and hermits in pursuit of the mystery of Dao, but few could turn away from their given role in society as servants of their sovereign. By becoming the administrators of the government, the class of scholar-officials inhabit the conflicting realm of the worldliness and the idealistic, the ephemeral and the constant. At the apex of this complicated bureaucratic system and highly evolved cosmic view is the Emperor, the ruler that unifies these two worlds. The perfect junzi is not only a wise and just sovereign, but also a learned man in tune with Dao.
It is within this context that we view the objects collected in the current exhibition. These objects were produced to the highest quality for the Emperor's alter ego as a scholar. These worldly possessions could only be produced in highly organized large scale factories - the range of materials and the quality of craftsmanship required were not accessible to ordinary men. However, they carry layers of meanings and associations that go far beyond just ordinary luxury objects made for writing and painting.
Ming and Qing Emperor's Studio The development of literati art with its emphasis on spontaneity and spirit, not surprisingly, coincided with the development of Neo-Confucianism. The late Northern Song and late Ming period were two of the pivotal periods when this unique aesthetic and taste developed. The paraphernalia that accompanied these artistic activities also took on a new character, and were no longer just utilitarian, functional objects, but objects that have intrinsic aesthetic value and an allusive quality in their own right. Amongst the four treasures of a scholar's studio - paper, brush, ink cake and ink stone - the ink stone, being the most durable and visible on a scholar's desk, became the most widely appreciated item. The Northern Song scholar-painter Mi Fu (1051-1107) wrote a treatise: Yanshi (Accounts on Ink stones), which discussed as many as twentyseven different types of materials, as well as designs and unique examples that he encountered. Mi Fu was one of the earliest collectors and connoisseurs of ink stones, and certainly not the last, reflecting a wider trend amongst his contemporaries.
The explosion of material wealth in the Ming period saw the maturing of connoisseurship and the classification of all things relating to the life and environments of a scholar. Tu Long's (1541-1606) Kaopan Yushi (Superfluous Accounts of a Hermit) lists as many as forty-five different items for a scholar's studio, and Wen Zhenheng's (1585-1645) Zhangwuzhi (On Superfluous Things) has even more, at eighty-five. This was clearly reflected in the variety and quality of pieces produced for the Imperial court. Precious materials like jade, ivory, zitan, huanghuali and fine porcelain were now more readily available for making items such as the brush rest, brush pot, washer, ink stone, ink palette, seal, incense box, wrist rest, and paperweight for the emperor's desk. However, the prevalent scholarly taste for undecorated and plain (pingdan) things, many of them by amateur scholar-artist hands, did not always meet the approval of the Imperial eye, which often preferred opulence and fine craftsmanship. For example, Wen Zhenheng writing in Zhangwuzhi, prefers plain brush-pots made of bamboo considering the more expensive zitan inferior (also admonishing against using decorated pieces). Thus, the beautifully carved zitan example in the current exhibition (no.1) obviously fits more with the Imperial taste. However, not all scholars abhored fine craftsmanship. Dong Qichang (1555-1636) for example, although he had the highest regard for the pingdan style of Ju Ran (Active end of 10th century) and Ni Zan's (1301-1374) paintings, also praised ‘laboured' (gong) paintings that manage to be ‘elegant' (ya) at the same time, such as those of Li Zhaodao (early Tang dynasty) and Qiu Ying (1509-1551). Li Rihua, another famous late Ming literati, was also full of praise when he saw a minutely carved olive-nut stone in the shape of a boat. This appreciation for pieces of superb craftsmanship that are not vulgar (su), meeting a scholar's ideal of elegance would be an appropriate criteria in evaluating pieces made for the Imperial studio.
When the Manchu established Qing dynasty, the ruling class was keen to adapt to the Han Chinese way of life and culture. The early Qing emperors went through rigorous literary training as princes, and many were competent in calligraphy and painting. The princes started school at the age of six, studied both Manchu and Chinese, and were required to be in the class between 4 am to 5 pm, with only one day off in the whole year on the New Year's Day. The Kangxi emperor practiced calligraphy constantly, writing at least a thousand characters each day. He also requested his sons and grandsons to do the same, and checked on them regularly.
With tightening thought control, the literati class as existed in the late Ming period gradually yielded their influence, and the court taste became more dominant. The court was also able to obtain the services of the best craftsmen available. Artists like Zhou Bin, who carved the huangfurong seal in the current exhibition (no. 8), either worked at court or made pieces for the court. The range of materials, styles and techniques available to craftsmen all reached a zenith in the eighteenth century. The Songhua stone, for example, was a newly added resource in the Kangxi period for making ink stones (such as no. 6), which was reserved for the sole use of the court. Top quality nephrite jade from Khotan like that used to make the jade washer (no. 10) also became more readily available after the Qianlong Emperor incorporated the Xinjiang area into the Qing Empire.
A hardwood box containing various scholar's objects in the collection of the Palace Museum, Beijing (fig.1), shows how different materials such as bamboo, wood, stone and bronze are mixed together on the Imperial desk. The juxtaposition of various materials, of things old and new, and of styles plain and ornate, with an emphasis on archaism, created a new aesthetic. In the Qianlong period, through various Imperial catalogues compiled by the court, we are able to understand the Imperial taste in greater detail. For example the Xiqing Yanpu, a catalogue on the ink stones in the Imperial collection, is an invaluable source in studying Qianlong Emperor's taste in scholar's objects. His preference and veneration for antiquity is clearly visible, and many pieces imitating the antique were made under his command, such as the She ink stone in the current exhibition (no. 15). The Qianlong emperor also liked to inscribe phrases, poems or prose on items he valued, an often insightful and illuminating record on his personality and thoughts.
The later Qing emperors were not as interested in literary pursuits as their forefathers. Fraught with troubles from the borders and depleting revenue, the Daoguang emperor was an exceptionally frugal man with not many interests outside his daily affairs in government. Nevertheless he delighted in the simply made double gourd (no. 20), a readily available inexpensive material, and an apt reflection of his character.
