The European Fine Art Fair (TEFAF)
12th–21st March 2010
Introduction
The creation of objects from the dried sap of lacquer trees (Rhus verniciflua), like silk and porcelain, was a medium invented by the Chinese people. From the dawn of their civilisation, dating back to Neolithic times, the Chinese used it to great effect, creating some of the most astonishing works of art in the history of mankind, and it is not until the first century B.C. do we find evidence of it being produced by other peoples. However, unlike silk or ceramics, producing lacquer wares was not only extremely labour intensive but also poisonous to the craftsmen (although the Chinese discovered antidotes to relieve this from very early on), therefore the scale of production was relatively small, and they were always highly valued luxury items. Lacquer’s preciousness meant that unlike silk or ceramics, it was not widely exported but remained largely for local use.
Although lacquer itself is one of the most durable organic substances known to men – it is impenetrable by water and resistant to acid, insects or worms – the core materials that are necessary in the production of lacquer wares, often wood or fabric, are highly perishable once the lacquer surface is penetrated. This, combined with its small production, has resulted in an incomplete archaeological record. For example, although many tombs from the Warring States and Han period have produced extensive lacquer finds, up until this decade, only two examples of Yuan carved cinnabar lacquer wares have been excavated. In the case of Yuan mother-of-pearl inlaid lacquer, only a single fragment has been found. When compared to the extensive finds of ceramics and jade it is not surprising that historical accounts of the development of lacquer are limited and sometimes contradictory.
Nevertheless, lacquer’s high status in Chinese society is evident from many early records. Legalist Han Feizi writing in the late Warring States period (475–221B.C.) and Confucian scholar Huan Kuan in the Eastern Han (25–220) both voiced their opposition to the extravagance and wastefulness of using lacquer. This did not stop its popularity, and in the Han period, vessels decorated with finely executed paintings, like that found on the basin in the current exhibition (no. 1), were the preferred luxury objects for the court. The famous 4th century painting by Gu Kaizhi (345–406), The Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies (fig. 1), depicts a noble lady being coiffured next to mirror stands and storage boxes made of lacquer. Similarly, a painted lacquer dish (fig. 2, Zhongguo Qiqi Quanji, Warring States –Yuan, p. 12) excavated in the tomb dated to the Eastern Wu (222–280) of Zhu Ran, a Strategist and Grand Secretary, in Anhui province, depicts court nobilities banqueting and merry-making, also amongst vessels and furniture made of lacquer, similar to those seen on the Admonitions scroll.
Between the Han and the Tang, the styles of decoration used in lacquer wares proliferated, encompassing ever more elaborate methods designed to show the virtuosity of the craftsman and the wealth of the owner. Among the most highly valued of these was carved lacquer, where the design is cut with a knife through layers of lacquer thickly built up around a core. Because lacquer can only dry in thin layers (if the coating is too thick only the surface will dry properly, leaving the lacquer underneath in liquid state), the best carved lacquer has up to two hundred layers to achieve the desired thickness. This normally takes up to half a year or more to prepare before carving can start.
There is still no concrete proof when carved lacquer first appeared – while the consensus deduced from literary accounts and some tenuous prototypes points to a Tang date, some suggest it could be as early as the Han dynasty, although no examples from controlled excavations can attest to these claims. The earliest true carved lacquer wares from dated excavations are from the Song dynasty, and the large black tixi lacquer dish in the current exhibition (no. 2) is an example of the sophisticated execution and design that existed by this period.
Carved lacquers achieved unparalleled excellence in the Yuan and early Ming period, when craftsmen from the Xitang area in Jiangsu created some of the most well known masterpieces in the art of lacquer. These pieces mainly depict flowers and birds or figures in landscape beside architectural structures. The former seem to have evolved from Song dynasty engraved silver (fig. 3a, b), while the latter clearly are related to academic paintings of palaces (fig. 4a, b). The floral pieces have a naturalistic style and harmonious compositions which gives a sense of space and depth, and are meticulously polished at the edges to give a rounded finish. The extremely rare sutra stand (no. 4) and crisply carved pen tray (no. 5) are wonderful examples of this type.
Between the Xuande and Jiajing reigns, very few lacquer pieces bear reign marks, probably indicating that the court reduced consumption of these costly pieces. Many that are dated to the mid-Ming period used in the Palace were probably commissioned from local craftsmen or might not originally be intended for the court. The Hongzhi marked box and cover in the British Museum, for example, was made in the Gansu area in West China, far away from the capital. Without a substantial number of these dated pieces or excavated materials, stylistic analysis is used to date these pieces, and it can sometimes prove to be a difficult task, especially when it appears that a revival of the Yuan style became prevalent in the carved lacquer of this period.
In order to distinguish between these two groups it is necessary to carefully examine Chinese lacquers documented and preserved in Japan, which from the Tang period onwards had been sent as diplomatic gifts between the two countries or Buddhist temples. In these early pieces it is possible to observe the close correspondence of the lacquer landscapes to Chinese paintings, with the abstracted clouds, water and ground all correctly and logically placed
(fig. 5a). However, although the pieces of the 16th century are still characterised by a certain freedom and freshness in execution, subtle changes in the ground pattern, and the details of the decorative schemes on these pieces often point to a later date (fig. 5b). This can be seen in the box and cover (no. 9), the oval tray (no. 11), and the tiered box (no. 7) in the current exhibition.
Another highly elaborate and time consuming technique that reached its maturity in the Yuan was ‘filled-in lacquer’, or tianqi, where the decoration is carved away from an existing lacquer ground and different colours filled in, creating a polychrome surface. In the early 17th century, Liu Tong comments that connoisseurs found carved lacquer and filled-in lacquer most desirable. However, because of its rarity, early examples of tianqi were many times more expensive than their carved lacquer counterparts.
The magnificent 15th century tianqi lacquer cabinet (no. 3), the largest and most complete of its type known, would undoubtedly have excited such connoisseurs. Superbly decorated in five different colours with vivid scenes of the Daoist paradise with the outlines picked out in gold dust, it recalls the legendary work of the early Yuan dynasty lacquer master Peng Junbao, who in the Gegu Yaolun of the early 15th century is recorded as making consummate gilded lacquers with landscapes, human figures, pavilions, flowers trees, birds and animals.
Given that tianqi was held in such high regard, it is not surprising that it was favoured by the imperial Ming court, as can be seen on the rare early 15th century offering tray (no. 6) and a magnificent cabinet of the Wanli period (no. 8). Tianqi lacquers used at court display a more formal ‘Imperial’ style, utilising symbols of imperial power like the dragon and phoenix combined with auspicious motifs or Buddhist and Daoist symbols in formal arrangements, with the motifs often highly stylised. These contrasts sharply with the naturalism and freedom found in carved lacquers of the earlier period.
The prestige of lacquer is underscored by the large number of master craftsmen whose names are known to us today, and many of the best pieces are signed. This can be compared to the complete absence of famous potters and a general paucity of the names of craftsmen working in any other medium (excepting bamboo and rhinoceros horn carvings, although in both cases signed pieces appear much later in the 16th century). Under the Ming, new regulations were put in place allowing lacquer craftsmen to avoid drafted labour by electing and paying replacements to perform duty in their place. In this exhibition there are two signed works dating to the 17th century, the carved lacquer pouring cup by Yang Ming (no. 12), and the set of four lacquer hangings by Jiang Qianli (no. 16).
The latter specialised an elaborate technique of mother of pearl inlay where the thin inner layers of shells of varying hues were used, creating a delicate and nuanced appearance, with rich pure gold and silver metallic inlays adding to the sense of luxury as the glittering decoration catches light and shimmers lustrously against a black background.
His work was so famous that it was compared to that of his contemporary and compatriot in Yangzhou, the famous painter Zha Shibiao (1655–1698). Looking at how skillfully he translates a series of album leaves using mother of pearl, gold, silver and copper inlays, it is easy to see why this was the case.
The beginning of the Qing dynasty saw the florescence of many different lacquer traditions. The Imperial style continued, the stylised patterns combining to create ever more complex and elaborate designs, such as those on the hexagonal jardinière (no. 26). The use of lacquer in conjunction with other precious materials, such as seen on the jade-inset ornament (no. 25) and the inlaid chest (no. 27) also became fashionable. However, we do still find lacquer pieces made outside the court displaying a restrained elegance. The xipi box (no. 13) shows how the elaborate and difficult technique of marbled lacquer could be used to produce an object of great purity suitable for the most severely neo-Confucian scholar. The set of bone-inlaid lacquer pieces (nos. 19–22) also displays an austere aesthetic, sparsely interposing the pale elements of bone on the dark background. Similarly, the pair of small polychrome dishes (no. 18), probably used as teacup stands, are painted with such charm and delicacy, as to turn the most mundane utensils into objects of delight and luxury.
